Bacon Roger :: Essays Papers

Bacon Roger Roger Bacon was an English Scholastic philosopher, scientist and one of the most influential teachers of the 13th century. He was born in Ilchester, Somersetshire in 1214. Roger Bacon was educated at the universities of Oxford and Paris. He remained in Paris after completing his studies and taught for a while at the University of Paris. When he returned to England in about 1251, he entered the religious order of the Franciscans and lived at Oxford. He carried on active studies and did experimental research in alchemy, optics, and astronomy. Bacon was critical of the methods of learning of the times, and in the late 1260s, at the request of Pope Clement IV, he wrote his Opus Majus (Major Work). In this work he represented the necessity of a reformation in the sciences through different methods of studying languages and nature. The Opus Majus was an encyclopedia of all science, embracing grammar and logic, mathematics, physics, experimental research, and moral philosophy. The response of the pope to Bacon's masterpiece is not known, but the work could not in any circumstances have had much effect in Bacon's time, because it reached Clement during the period of his fatal illness. Bacon's revolutionary ideas about the study of science caused his condemnation by the Franciscans for his heretical views. In 1278 the general of the Franciscan order, Girolamo Masci, later Pope Nicholas IV, forbade the reading of Bacon's books and had Bacon arrested. After ten years in prison, Bacon returned to Oxford. He wrote Compendium Studii Theologiae (A Compendium of the Study of Theology, 1292) shortly before his death. Despite his advanced knowledge, Bacon accepted some of the popular but later disproved beliefs of his time, such as the existence of a philosopher's stone and the efficacy of astrology. Although many inventions have been credited to him, some of them undoubtedly were derived from the study of Arab scientists. His writings brought new and ingenious views on optics, particularly on refraction; on the apparent magnitude of objects; and on the apparent increase in the size of the sun and moon at the horizon. He found that with sulfur, saltpeter, and charcoal, a substance (now known as gunpowder) could be produced that would imitate lightning and cause explosions.

Cross Cultural Management

The purpose of this essay to demonstrate the cultural differences between the UK manager going to work as an expatriate manager in Colombia. By taking into consideration Hofstede, Bond, Trompenaars and other cross cultural management researchers to advise the UK manager about the Colombian culture, taking into consideration the differences between leadership styles, decision making, recruitment and selection, motivation, planning and team versus individual working. The reason for selecting Colombia was that according to the results by Geert Hofstede, these two countries are very opposite to one another.Therefore it will be good to compare the differences and the similarities between the countries’ culture. According to Adler (1983) Cross Cultural Management is defined as the study of the behavior of people in the organizations located in cultures and nations around the world. It focuses on the description of organizational behaviour within countries and cultures, on the compar ison of organizational behaviour across countries and cultures, and perhaps most importantly on the interactional of people from different countries working within the same organization or within the same work environment.As an advisor to a UK company opening a subsidiary and to send an expatriate Manager to work in Colombia, the best way is to enter the country with an acceptance to what is the culture of Colombia, as it is always better to accept and then expect. Hofstede defines culture as â€Å"the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another Culture, in this sense, includes values; systems of values are a core element of culture. (Mead et al, 2009) From further research on Hofstede’s culture dimension, we can state that there is a huge different between the UK and Colombian culture. (Hofstede, 2009) Power Distance is the extent to which members of a society accept the unequal distribution of power among individuals. (Ball et al 2004) On the Power Distance dimension (PDI) Colombia scored a comparatively high score of (67). Hofstede, (2011) the score reveal that Colombians are reliant on authority and have leadership that is regularly in a paternalistic approach.This is predictable by workers, they are often loyal and the assumption is that all authority and accountability is at a higher level. Here subordinates are to treat those in positions of authority with particular respect, meaning it is a society that has a very low level of tolerance for uncertainty. The manager knows everything and is all powerful. Harris et al (2004) Management here is seen as being authoritarian, the theory X managers as defined by McGregor. Netmba, (2011) In Colombia the lines of communication in organisation is vertical, subordinates will normally know whom to report to.Companies here are characterised by a less formal controls and fewer layers of management. (Mead et al, 2004) According to Geert Hofstede’s c ulture dimensions scores, UK has the score of (35) This shows that the UK has a very low power distance, which means that it society de-emphasises the differences between citizen’s power and wealth. It places more emphasis on opportunity and equality for everyone. Managers and subordinates are treated equally. Hodgetts et al, (2003). Here the management style as more of the theory Y manager, as managers are more flexible. (Netmba, 2011)Trompenaars views Individualism and Collectivism dimension as the conflict between groups and individual interest. Triandis, (1994) this reflects the underlying arrangement of society integrated, tight social arrangement involving collective responsibility. (Jhon Martin, 2005) UK has a score of (89) on the Hofstede’s finding, this score indicate that UK has a high score on individualism and a high gross national product and also a free political structure. Here the society are more individuals and are expected to look after themselves an d their immediate families only. Mcfarlin et al, 2011) On the other hand Colombia has a score of (13), this indicates the opposite of UK, meaning that Colombia is a collective society, where a favourite for a strongly tie social framework in which citizens are integrated in groups, they expect their clan, families, or other in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning reliability.Colombian’s societies are strongly from birth onwards integrated into strong groups, this is often extended family. (Hofstede and Bond, 1988) Colombian people would openly express emotions even in business circumstances, whereas the British would consider such display nprofessional. (Helen Deresky, 2003) UK managers separates work, relationships and personal issues, they compartmentalise their private lives and work, they are more direct and open, whereas in an diffused oriented cultures, such as Colombia, there is spill over from work into personal relationships. (Helen Deresky, 2003) A ccording to Edward Hall Britain is a monochronic time society. To British citizens time is precious and limited resource, it is to be scheduled, saved, and also spent with precision, for the British time is money, and the clock is at all times running.Therefore, schedules and deadlines must to be met, and when others are not on time for meetings, British may feel insulted, when meetings digress from their purpose, British tend to become impatient. (Mcfarlin et al, 2011) However in Colombia attitude toward time is â€Å"manana† meaning tomorrow. From Edward Hall research, Colombian is a polychonic time society. Despite the fact that the British frequently regards a deadline as a firm commitment, Colombians often regards deadline imposed on them as an insult. They feel that important things take long time and therefore cannot be rushed.Colombians are not known for punctuality. They may arrive at a business meeting 15 or 20 minutes late, since this is considered the norm. (Mcfar lin et al, 2011) The UK manager going to Colombia must be careful not to offend Colombians as they misunderstand the local language of time. Polychronic cultures take a more flexible view of time and this may be hard for British to understand. The procedure of relationship building is regarded with much more importance in most part of the globe. It is important for a cross culture manager to be aware of the influence of culture on decision making styles and process. Deresky, 2003) According to Harris et al, (2004) British negotiators are in general speaking objective regarding the precise issue at hand and usually would like to waste no time in getting down to business and making progress. They understand the other’s position, and are marked by tolerance and compromise. Managers here are seen as being one dimensional, mechanistic and caught in a short term transitional approach. They focus more on formal rules than relationships. According to trompenaars’ dimensions UK is seen as being a high universalism society, However Colombia is seen high on particularism.Hodgetts et al, (2003) Colombian managers would like to take sufficient time to build trust and respect as a basis for negotiating contract. In Colombia personal commitment to individuals, rather than the legal system, form the basis for the enforcement of contracts. UK manager must be aware that relationship building is in fact, the first phase of negotiations with the Colombian. Looking at Trompennars dimension of diffuse vs specific, Colombians are known to have an indirect communication style and they rely on facial expression. With the Colombians it is considered polite to keep close eye contact during conversations.With close friends, women could kiss each other on one cheek or clasp forearms. Men often hug and hit each other’s back. This particular hug is known as the â€Å"abrazo. † (Cultural taboos, 2010) Colombians will also ask numerous polite questions and go throu gh other pleasantries; UK managers should expect inquiries as to your trip, family, friend and health, when greeting Colombians you don’t not rush them, as it is considered callous and disrespect to rush greeting. The standard greeting is the handshake upon introduction and departure. Cultural taboos, 2010) In the other hand communication in the UK will be more direct and reserved; they avoid high pressure tactics and confrontational behaviour. (Harris et al, 2004) Language can also be a pitfall for a British expatriate manger going to work in Colombia. Inability to speak local language can be a challenge; therefore the British manager must learn Spanish when going to work in Colombia as this will help. In Colombia selecting a leader or a manager from a company is the most crucial decision, as they will normally want to know them personally and probably establish friendship.They make decisions on the basis of feelings, rather than experience or empirical evidence of other fac ts. Cultural taboos (2010) In Colombia before starting a meeting, there will always be a small talk, this is necessary in as its gives manager and subordinate the time to get to know each other personally. It is seen as a good way to establish relationship this is seen as a high priority than just doing business. Most time other cultures doing business with Colombian should wait for them to initiate the business discussion. (Charles, Trompenaars, 2004)At the end of the meeting, do not hurry off; wait a little longer to continue talking with the work colleague or business partners, Colombians will find it impolite and disrespectful to leave immediately following a meeting, this to them suggest that you have better things to do. Therefore a British expatriate manager should take this into consideration as mentioned above, time is not an issue for Colombians, and Meetings will last as long as they need to last, and establishing trust is very important first. (Charles, Trompenaars, 2004 )Management nowadays must make sure that they are understanding and being understood across cultural borders. As a UK manager working as an expatriate in Colombia, there are many things to take into account as the two countries are very different when it comes to cross cultural differences and in cross cultural management. Dealing with different culturally teams can be a challenge. The expatriate UK manager going to Colombia must consider and respect that Colombian’s management is totally different from the one from UK; therefore the expatriate manager must show appreciation and consideration of Colombian culture.Uk manager should show tolerance, in respecting Colombian’s cultural views, beliefs and have tolerance for their difference working practices, as mentioned above in the views from Trompenaar, Colombia is seen as a high particularism society, they focus is more on relationship than formal roles, in Colombia the business set is very formal and the expatriate man ager from UK will be more successful if he bears in mind the importance of being polite at all times. And treat people in positions of authority with respect.It is better to make an error on the side of being excessively formal rather than to jeopardize a business relationship by being too informal and appearing flippant. Cultural taboos (2010) whereas in the UK this is not the case. British society is seen as high universalism, they focus is more on formal rules than relationships, here business contract are adhered to very closely, and they believe that â€Å"a deal is a deal†. (Hodgetts et al 2003) The UK expatriate manager must also have the knowledge of the Colombian organisational culture and history, as this will help him know exactly what to expect from the Colombian working trategy, and learn who has the authority to decide on settlement and on the decision making. He must also take whatever step that is necessary to gain an in depth understanding of Colombians, and how they negotiating styles, views of process, and cultural values may come to play. Another important issue that the UK expatriate manager should consider is language, the lack of foreign language skills will put the British manager at a disadvantage, as verbal communication is important.In Colombia business is done in English and in Spanish, therefore the British manager should consider learning Spanish before taking the challenge of working in Colombia. In Conclusion a manger moving to work from one country to another, must know that it is not an easy issue but a challenging one. Cross cultural manager must learn the differences management styles between the host country and the visiting country. Taking into consideration their cultures differences, value, beliefs and norms.References Dereskey, E. (2011). International Management, 7th Edition. Prentice Hall Dereskey, E. 2003). International Management, 4TH Edition. Prentice Hall Mcfalin, D. , Sweeney, P. (2011). International Man agement, 4th Edition. New York Harris, P. Robert, T, . Moran, S, . Moran, V. (2004). Managing Cultural Differences, 6TH Edition. USA Hampden, C, T, Trompennar, F. (2004). Building Cross- Cultural Competence. UK Hodgetts, R. Luthans, F. (2003) International Management, 5TH Edition Mead, R. , Andrews T. (2009). International Management, 4th Edition Wiley Nancy J. (1983). The Academy of Management Review Cross-Cultural Management Research: The Ostrich and the Trend Cultural taboos (2010) Available at: http://www. circlesofexcellence. com/blog/? tag=cultural-taboos&paged=2 [accessed: 21 March, 2011]. Colombian culture tips Available at: http://rw-3. com/tag/colombian-culture/ [accessed: 19 March, 2011]. Intercultural Management, UK. Being a Manager in United Kingdom http://www. kwintessential. co. uk/intercultural/management/uk. html [Accessed: 20 March, 20011]. Theory X and Theory Y Available at: http://www. netmba. com/mgmt/ob/motivation/mcgregor/ [accessed: 19 March, 2011]. APENDIX G eert Hofstede Culture Dimension See: http://www. geert-hofstede. com/hofstede_dimensions. php? ulture1=94&culture2=19 High Context vs. Low Context Take a look how members of high and low contextual cultures see themselves and their opposites: High Context Communication †¢polite †¢respectful †¢integrates by similarities/harmony †¢not directLow Context Communication †¢open †¢true †¢integrates by authenticity †¢direct High Context claims Low Context †¢impolite †¢Ã¢â‚¬Å"cannot read between the lines† †¢naive †¢no self discipline †¢too fastLow Context claims High Context †¢hiding information †¢not trustable †¢arrogant †¢too formal †¢too slow See:http://globthink. com/2009/06/24/indirect-communication-and-indirect-leadership-in-asia/ Cross Cultural Management CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT Under these conditions it is obvious that corporations very often operate in different countries and deal with people from other nations. The Company that makes business outside the home country encounters some difficulties. There are significant differences among countries according to their culture and this affects their relationships between trade partners or cooperating companies. This subject very often is described by Lisbeth Clausen. She is a professor that associates with Department of Intercultural Communication and Management at Copenhagen Business School and she is also affiliated with Asia Research Center. In the International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 2007 Vol 7(3): 317-332 we can find an article titled: Corporate Comunication Challenges – A Negotiation Culture Perspective, written by Lisbeth Clausen. The article is based on her research project, which examines communication between Danish companies and their headquarters/alliances in Japan. The main interest in this research is related to communications between people in organizations with a global perspective. The author for a year and a half was part of the international news flow research team at Keio University in Japan where she was observing political decision-making processes in the newsrooms at the public service station NHK and also the commercial station TV Asahi. She has interviewed forty journalists, foreign correspondents, editors and famous anchors and the five Japanese national news producers about their production of international news and also she has compared studies of Danish and Japanese news programs. Her project is supported by the Danish Research Council (LOK). She also has interviewed fifty global managers from Denmark and Japan, paying attention to their cooperation, their cultural challenges in communication and implementation of strategies in Japan. In her article Corporate Communication and Challenges-A Negotiated Culture Perspective is the essence of her long term studies and hard work. The author’s main thesis is that business culture cannot be defined only in terms of nationality. By the examination of Danish-Japanese business relationships she tries to show that there are other factors like industry, organizational and professional knowledge that shape culture. However that does not mean that national characteristics and values are not important. The article is very well organized. It includes a little introduction to the problems. Lisbeth presents results of her research that she did while being in Japan. She applies concept of negotiated culture to empirical data at both organizational and contextual levels in intercultural encounters. Communication is viewed as a complex, multi- issued, and dynamic process in which global managers exchange meaning (Clausen, 2007). The fact that she based her article on the theories of intercultural communication and negotiated culture and after that lead readers through information obtained from managers engaged in Danish-Japanese business to get to conclusions that support stated by her thesis, strengths this article, makes it clearer and more reliable. Based on the analyses of strategic and operational communications that occur in the business relationship between Denmark headquarter and its alliance partner in Japan, Lisbeth indicates how the western view of communication processes differs from the Japanese and how many challenges are brought about by the globalization. As mentioned earlier the theoretical foundation for these studies is a theory of negotiated culture. According to Brannen and Salk (t2000): national origin is a source of values and norms for managers, but is not a determinant of communication outcomes negotiated culture appear when members from different national and organizational cultures deal together during cooperation between corporation from two different countries emerge the specific attributes of a headquarters/partners relationship cultural differences may affect task related issues in unexpected ways The fact that the author indicates all the sources from which she has obtained information presented in the article makes this articlea more valuable source of knowledge about intercultural communication. Lisbeth has collected data for her studies in April 2004 in Denmark and in September-November 2004 in Japan. She refers to the company she was examining as the Shoe Company. She conducted fifty interviews in five companies as part of a larger project on management, communication and competence. The goal of interviewed made i n both Denmark and Japan was to achieve a good understanding of the viewpoints of both the headquarters and the partner. In Denmark Lisbeth has focused on the production of new prototypes and has met people in the factory. In Japan she has visited several shoe stores and has spent some time in the showroom. She has thoroughly interviewed managers and directors from so many departments. Besides that she has also interview via telephone the managing director of Asia (Danish) stationed in Hong Kong (Clausen, 2007). It seems like Lisbeth has put so much effort in obtaining all the information that let her be as objective as possible. The article is well organized. Every problem that is discussed belongs to different paragraph, with a header to make it easier to understand. The author describes different issues step by step without mixing them together. Everything together is connected in the reasonable article and all the conclusions are drawn from all the information presented in there. It gives me an impression that Lisbeth has broad knowledge about the problem of communication according to the culture differentiation. Besides that the language that she uses even if she talks about some theories is rather always clear. Because all businesses involve communication therefore ability to communicate with people from other culture is crucial in global world of business. Communication becomes more difficult when partners come from different cultural background and speak different language (Adler, 2002). There are no doubts that managers and expatriates have big challenges dealing with their partners across the borders. Culture in certain way shapes the communication. To explain better the relationship between culture and communication the author is so precise and describes first the notion of communication, considering more than just one perspective. I think that this is one of the proofs that Lisbeth tries to be very objective. Western approach is concerned on communication as a transmission of information from sender to receiver, what is understood as a possible to control process. From the other side she also presents eastern perspective that emphasizes a role of cooperation. Besides that she also focuses on explanation of culture. She presents different theories of culture at the end she puts essence of all of them in a conclusion. She sees culture as a part of relationship rather than in predetermined structure. Lisbeth very good presents the base on which she draws her conclusions. To support her thesis about influence of cultural differentiation for business relationship she presents all the facts that she has recorded while interviewing managers in SHOE Company. That also includes the information about development of the cooperation between Denmark and Japan in the SHOE Company. Danish Company makes business with Japanese on the base of licensing. According to her interviews the author indicates as many areas that show differences in culture as possible. The culture of the SHOE Company is influenced by the founders. Headquarter director always has his vision and his own way of doing things. The Company even posses a book with 25 culture Maxims. Danish managers highlight some of them, still paying attention for role of entrepreneur. Japanese from the other side respect Danish rules and business philosophy, but they cannot incorporate everything into a Japanese business setting. Even if Danish managers made so many trips to Japan to get know better Japanese culture and customs the author emphasizes the fact that there are still big differences that force Japanese to modify Danish business philosophy. To convince readers about differences in Danish and Japanese culture Lisbeth gives so many examples from Companies life. SHOE Company has an office in Honk Kong. The managerial director (Danish) is the only person from this office that deal with Japanese. He lives in Honk Kong. He is kind of mediator between Danish managers and Japanese. He has much better abilities to communicate with Japanese than his Danish coworkers. On the base of this example, Lisbeth proofs that there are different cultures in Denmark and in Japan. The fact that managerial director in Honk Kong can better communicate with Japanese is a result of cultural learning and adaptation of the Asian managerial director. The author very good presents a base for her conclusions. She discusses variety of factors that affect her final opinion. According to organization of communication she presents Danish and Japanese perspectives. Japanese complain that they have to move toward a more western style of management in Japan. Danish asses this a little bit different. They say that Japanese are too much conservative and spend too much time making sure that everything is perfect before they launch the product. Moreover dominating there vertical hierarchy does not support empower employees. The lack of freedom, independence and personal responsibilities makes business slower and less developed that it could be. Another important issue discovered by Lisbeth during her studies was lack of agreement on distribution channel. There is intermediary system of distribution in Japan, which in Danish’s opinion makes selling prices to go up. Unfortunately the power of wholesalers is overwhelming in the Japanese market, and many department stores are depended on them. Japanese tradition of wholesalers is not possible to change. I think that this example strengths Lisbeth’s article because proofs the assumption that different markets have different cultural heritage, what definitely affect the way of doing business. To make her arguments even stronger Lisbet’h took closer look at Product, Brand and Marketing strategy in the SHOE Company. The main strategy of the Corporation is that local subsidiaries and factories around the world make as many decisions by them self as possible. However there are still many disputes. Denmark wants to promote its shoes as Danish as comfortable, which is accepted by Japan, but Japan, does not want promote slow and comfortable life that in Japanese opinion is an attribute of Danish people. This totally does not fit to the Japanese life style in a big metropolis. There are so many areas of disputes that results from different tradition, culture and lifestyle. Japan accepts and implements only 50% of Danish ideas for marketing. Similar situation appears if it comes about brand strategy. Living in the global world Danish tries to apply one global strategy to its products, however Japanese do not agree. Japan has its own history and position of its market. Japan is not so open for changes. While in Denmark change of manager usually results in the change of strategy, in Japan new managers try to learn company strategy overrules. (Clausen, 2007) Lisbeth also indicates the diversity between Japanese and Danish cultures that are very visible during the joint meetings. That is connected with different style of negotiation presented by each country. For Danish the most important are results that are based on the number of business decisions made during the meeting. They are very active, talk a lot sometimes even interrupting his coworkers. They try to discuss as many new ideas as possible. Participation is not very formal. Japanese act totally different and value other things. For them every business meeting it has a form of formal ceremony. It is extremely important for them to attend the meeting. Japanese do not talk too much, the listen. They comment only if they are asked to do it. For Danish people this is not so easy, because to be successful making business with Japanese they have to follow their ritual and be very patient. The author also indicates diversity of work culture. Japanese are always very well prepared and pay lots of attention for small details. They focus on the relationship building. Very often they meet after the business meeting to go out together for dinner. Danish are not like that. For them business is business and free time is separated from it. They do not enjoy spending their private free time for meeting people from work. Lisbeth Clausen has done a very good job collecting all this data and information from her interviewed. For me her article seems like a very good and reliable source of knowledge about the intercultural communication on the base of Danish-Japanese cooperation. Her deep research provides so many examples of diversity of cultures between these two countries. Numerous analyses of certain facts and behaviors let readers better understand stated problem. Examination of the situation that she personally experienced is a good way of delivering proof for her thesis. I think that for me as a student of businessadministration this article is very valuable. It makes me realize that culture of each country is not the same, sometimes not even similar. Differences in culture affect the way of communication. In the century of development of globalization there are many challenges in making business across the countries. Maybe one day I will work for a Company that performs global and I will have to deal with managers from different culture. Lisbeth indicates that it is important to know culture and tradition of other countries while making business with them. She introduce to reader Danish and Japanese style of negotiation. If one day I will have to deal with someone from these two countries I will already have some knowledge about their culture. I totally agree with Lisbeth thesis that culture shape communication. References: Adler, N. J. (2002) The International Dimension of Organizational Behavior, 4th edn. Canada: North-Western Brannen, Y. and Salk, J. E. (2000) â€Å"Partnering across Borders: Negotiating Organizational Culture in German-Japanese Joint Venture†, Human Relations 53(4):451-87. Cross Cultural Management CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT Under these conditions it is obvious that corporations very often operate in different countries and deal with people from other nations. The Company that makes business outside the home country encounters some difficulties. There are significant differences among countries according to their culture and this affects their relationships between trade partners or cooperating companies. This subject very often is described by Lisbeth Clausen. She is a professor that associates with Department of Intercultural Communication and Management at Copenhagen Business School and she is also affiliated with Asia Research Center. In the International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 2007 Vol 7(3): 317-332 we can find an article titled: Corporate Comunication Challenges – A Negotiation Culture Perspective, written by Lisbeth Clausen. The article is based on her research project, which examines communication between Danish companies and their headquarters/alliances in Japan. The main interest in this research is related to communications between people in organizations with a global perspective. The author for a year and a half was part of the international news flow research team at Keio University in Japan where she was observing political decision-making processes in the newsrooms at the public service station NHK and also the commercial station TV Asahi. She has interviewed forty journalists, foreign correspondents, editors and famous anchors and the five Japanese national news producers about their production of international news and also she has compared studies of Danish and Japanese news programs. Her project is supported by the Danish Research Council (LOK). She also has interviewed fifty global managers from Denmark and Japan, paying attention to their cooperation, their cultural challenges in communication and implementation of strategies in Japan. In her article Corporate Communication and Challenges-A Negotiated Culture Perspective is the essence of her long term studies and hard work. The author’s main thesis is that business culture cannot be defined only in terms of nationality. By the examination of Danish-Japanese business relationships she tries to show that there are other factors like industry, organizational and professional knowledge that shape culture. However that does not mean that national characteristics and values are not important. The article is very well organized. It includes a little introduction to the problems. Lisbeth presents results of her research that she did while being in Japan. She applies concept of negotiated culture to empirical data at both organizational and contextual levels in intercultural encounters. Communication is viewed as a complex, multi- issued, and dynamic process in which global managers exchange meaning (Clausen, 2007). The fact that she based her article on the theories of intercultural communication and negotiated culture and after that lead readers through information obtained from managers engaged in Danish-Japanese business to get to conclusions that support stated by her thesis, strengths this article, makes it clearer and more reliable. Based on the analyses of strategic and operational communications that occur in the business relationship between Denmark headquarter and its alliance partner in Japan, Lisbeth indicates how the western view of communication processes differs from the Japanese and how many challenges are brought about by the globalization. As mentioned earlier the theoretical foundation for these studies is a theory of negotiated culture. According to Brannen and Salk (t2000): national origin is a source of values and norms for managers, but is not a determinant of communication outcomes negotiated culture appear when members from different national and organizational cultures deal together during cooperation between corporation from two different countries emerge the specific attributes of a headquarters/partners relationship cultural differences may affect task related issues in unexpected ways The fact that the author indicates all the sources from which she has obtained information presented in the article makes this articlea more valuable source of knowledge about intercultural communication. Lisbeth has collected data for her studies in April 2004 in Denmark and in September-November 2004 in Japan. She refers to the company she was examining as the Shoe Company. She conducted fifty interviews in five companies as part of a larger project on management, communication and competence. The goal of interviewed made i n both Denmark and Japan was to achieve a good understanding of the viewpoints of both the headquarters and the partner. In Denmark Lisbeth has focused on the production of new prototypes and has met people in the factory. In Japan she has visited several shoe stores and has spent some time in the showroom. She has thoroughly interviewed managers and directors from so many departments. Besides that she has also interview via telephone the managing director of Asia (Danish) stationed in Hong Kong (Clausen, 2007). It seems like Lisbeth has put so much effort in obtaining all the information that let her be as objective as possible. The article is well organized. Every problem that is discussed belongs to different paragraph, with a header to make it easier to understand. The author describes different issues step by step without mixing them together. Everything together is connected in the reasonable article and all the conclusions are drawn from all the information presented in there. It gives me an impression that Lisbeth has broad knowledge about the problem of communication according to the culture differentiation. Besides that the language that she uses even if she talks about some theories is rather always clear. Because all businesses involve communication therefore ability to communicate with people from other culture is crucial in global world of business. Communication becomes more difficult when partners come from different cultural background and speak different language (Adler, 2002). There are no doubts that managers and expatriates have big challenges dealing with their partners across the borders. Culture in certain way shapes the communication. To explain better the relationship between culture and communication the author is so precise and describes first the notion of communication, considering more than just one perspective. I think that this is one of the proofs that Lisbeth tries to be very objective. Western approach is concerned on communication as a transmission of information from sender to receiver, what is understood as a possible to control process. From the other side she also presents eastern perspective that emphasizes a role of cooperation. Besides that she also focuses on explanation of culture. She presents different theories of culture at the end she puts essence of all of them in a conclusion. She sees culture as a part of relationship rather than in predetermined structure. Lisbeth very good presents the base on which she draws her conclusions. To support her thesis about influence of cultural differentiation for business relationship she presents all the facts that she has recorded while interviewing managers in SHOE Company. That also includes the information about development of the cooperation between Denmark and Japan in the SHOE Company. Danish Company makes business with Japanese on the base of licensing. According to her interviews the author indicates as many areas that show differences in culture as possible. The culture of the SHOE Company is influenced by the founders. Headquarter director always has his vision and his own way of doing things. The Company even posses a book with 25 culture Maxims. Danish managers highlight some of them, still paying attention for role of entrepreneur. Japanese from the other side respect Danish rules and business philosophy, but they cannot incorporate everything into a Japanese business setting. Even if Danish managers made so many trips to Japan to get know better Japanese culture and customs the author emphasizes the fact that there are still big differences that force Japanese to modify Danish business philosophy. To convince readers about differences in Danish and Japanese culture Lisbeth gives so many examples from Companies life. SHOE Company has an office in Honk Kong. The managerial director (Danish) is the only person from this office that deal with Japanese. He lives in Honk Kong. He is kind of mediator between Danish managers and Japanese. He has much better abilities to communicate with Japanese than his Danish coworkers. On the base of this example, Lisbeth proofs that there are different cultures in Denmark and in Japan. The fact that managerial director in Honk Kong can better communicate with Japanese is a result of cultural learning and adaptation of the Asian managerial director. The author very good presents a base for her conclusions. She discusses variety of factors that affect her final opinion. According to organization of communication she presents Danish and Japanese perspectives. Japanese complain that they have to move toward a more western style of management in Japan. Danish asses this a little bit different. They say that Japanese are too much conservative and spend too much time making sure that everything is perfect before they launch the product. Moreover dominating there vertical hierarchy does not support empower employees. The lack of freedom, independence and personal responsibilities makes business slower and less developed that it could be. Another important issue discovered by Lisbeth during her studies was lack of agreement on distribution channel. There is intermediary system of distribution in Japan, which in Danish’s opinion makes selling prices to go up. Unfortunately the power of wholesalers is overwhelming in the Japanese market, and many department stores are depended on them. Japanese tradition of wholesalers is not possible to change. I think that this example strengths Lisbeth’s article because proofs the assumption that different markets have different cultural heritage, what definitely affect the way of doing business. To make her arguments even stronger Lisbet’h took closer look at Product, Brand and Marketing strategy in the SHOE Company. The main strategy of the Corporation is that local subsidiaries and factories around the world make as many decisions by them self as possible. However there are still many disputes. Denmark wants to promote its shoes as Danish as comfortable, which is accepted by Japan, but Japan, does not want promote slow and comfortable life that in Japanese opinion is an attribute of Danish people. This totally does not fit to the Japanese life style in a big metropolis. There are so many areas of disputes that results from different tradition, culture and lifestyle. Japan accepts and implements only 50% of Danish ideas for marketing. Similar situation appears if it comes about brand strategy. Living in the global world Danish tries to apply one global strategy to its products, however Japanese do not agree. Japan has its own history and position of its market. Japan is not so open for changes. While in Denmark change of manager usually results in the change of strategy, in Japan new managers try to learn company strategy overrules. (Clausen, 2007) Lisbeth also indicates the diversity between Japanese and Danish cultures that are very visible during the joint meetings. That is connected with different style of negotiation presented by each country. For Danish the most important are results that are based on the number of business decisions made during the meeting. They are very active, talk a lot sometimes even interrupting his coworkers. They try to discuss as many new ideas as possible. Participation is not very formal. Japanese act totally different and value other things. For them every business meeting it has a form of formal ceremony. It is extremely important for them to attend the meeting. Japanese do not talk too much, the listen. They comment only if they are asked to do it. For Danish people this is not so easy, because to be successful making business with Japanese they have to follow their ritual and be very patient. The author also indicates diversity of work culture. Japanese are always very well prepared and pay lots of attention for small details. They focus on the relationship building. Very often they meet after the business meeting to go out together for dinner. Danish are not like that. For them business is business and free time is separated from it. They do not enjoy spending their private free time for meeting people from work. Lisbeth Clausen has done a very good job collecting all this data and information from her interviewed. For me her article seems like a very good and reliable source of knowledge about the intercultural communication on the base of Danish-Japanese cooperation. Her deep research provides so many examples of diversity of cultures between these two countries. Numerous analyses of certain facts and behaviors let readers better understand stated problem. Examination of the situation that she personally experienced is a good way of delivering proof for her thesis. I think that for me as a student of businessadministration this article is very valuable. It makes me realize that culture of each country is not the same, sometimes not even similar. Differences in culture affect the way of communication. In the century of development of globalization there are many challenges in making business across the countries. Maybe one day I will work for a Company that performs global and I will have to deal with managers from different culture. Lisbeth indicates that it is important to know culture and tradition of other countries while making business with them. She introduce to reader Danish and Japanese style of negotiation. If one day I will have to deal with someone from these two countries I will already have some knowledge about their culture. I totally agree with Lisbeth thesis that culture shape communication. References: Adler, N. J. (2002) The International Dimension of Organizational Behavior, 4th edn. Canada: North-Western Brannen, Y. and Salk, J. E. (2000) â€Å"Partnering across Borders: Negotiating Organizational Culture in German-Japanese Joint Venture†, Human Relations 53(4):451-87.

The Need For Rationing Increasingly Scarce Health Care...

Introduction This paper addresses the issues surrounding the need for rationing increasingly scarce health care resources. There has been much debate over the questions of how best to provide quality health care coverage, which services are necessary and which are optional, and how to pay for it all. Although there does not seem to be a consensus on how best to distribute health care services, the growing demand for coverage and current expectations of the public make addressing the situation increasingly more pressing. Examples from the key health care areas of organ transplantation, reproductive technology, and geriatric costs are briefly analyzed and placed in the larger context of the overall scarcity of health care resources in order to illustrate the rationing dilemmas facing health care. This issue will become more pressing as the realization takes hold that health care costs are increasingly out-stripping society’s ability to pay for those costs. Not every patient is given the most beneficial treatment. For such an individual, the consequences can be sometimes tragic and the notion of pricing life is controversial. Because of this fact, decisions involving rationing of health care resources raises the question: How do we treat a person with dignity and respect, an individual who is left behind by an effectual policy for society generally (Menzel, 1990)? Rationing Examples: A Review of the Literature In triage circumstances, as in a mass trauma incident,Show MoreRelatedThe National Health Service ( Nhs )3985 Words   |  16 PagesFinancial Dilemmas The National Health Service (NHS) was established in 1948 and has been regularly described as the envy of the world. Successive Governments have remained committed to its founding principle; universal service free at the point of use. NHS is funded through general taxation and its current budget is around  £110 billion. It is facing unprecedented and increasing pressures that threaten to overwhelm its capacity. The population is ageing and there is a significant increase in theRead More Ethical And Legal Aspects On Organ Transplantation Essay6401 Words   |  26 Pagesmeasures taken by health care professionals. This is a limited view of the matter because health care professionals are not directly responsible for the policies and other guidelines for procuring organs. The general population does not have the interest of suffering individuals at heart when it comes to donation. Instead, the interest lies with respecting individual autonomy and dead bodies. I strongly believe that the attention needs to focus on the next-of-kin or health care proxies communicationRead MoreEssay on Economic, Political and Social Effects of Stalins Purges2356 Words   |  10 Pagesdictatorship to the dictatorship of a single individual; Stalin. Overall power was centred in Stalin, under whom an increasingly bureaucratic hierarchy of party officials worked. During the purges Stalins personal power can be seen to increase at the cost of the partys. It could be argued that this increasing power for the single leader drawn from his party was due to the need for fast, decisive and unquestioned leadership of the type needed in battle. After all Russia was portrayed by the SovietRead MoreBusiness Economics Solutions Mba12192 Words   |  49 PagesBusiness Economics MBA LIMITS, CHOICES AND SCARCITY ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER QUESTIONS 2-1 Explain this statement: â€Å"If resources were unlimited and freely available, there would be no subject called economics.† If resources were unlimited and freely available, making choices would not be necessary. Every person could have as much as they wanted of any good or service. 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With government agencies pressing for ever more standardized and conventional research and with increasingly instrumental careerist vi FOREWORD behaviour by academics, there are fewer incentives to bridge the academic and practical spheres. No doubt this is also exaggerated by an increasingly less curious professional world. The intellectually curious Technical Partners of the past have been replaced by more market orientated purveyors ofRead MoreAppraisal Techniques of Public Investments and Projects62994 Words   |  252 Pages.....................................................................................65 4.3.5 Illustration of cash flows........................................................................................................66 PITT Management Resources Page 2 of 176 Investment Appraisal Training Manual for Public Projects 4.3.6 Points to note............................................................................................................................68 4.4 Economic analysisRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesstrategic choices and strategy in action covered later in the book, it will normally be a prerequisite that some type of analysis of the strategic position is undertaken, using the case material. When planning the use of these cases within programmes, care needs to be taken to balance the time taken on such strategic analysis so as to allow the time required to analyse the main issues for which the case has been chosen. Where the text and cases are being used as the framework for a strategy programme (as

The Scarlet Letter Themes and Symbols

The Scarlet Letter, Nathanial Hawthorne’s 1850 novel of a 17th century adulterous affair in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, centers on several themes that would have been very meaningful to the highly religious, pre-industrial community in which it is set: the nature of shame and judgment; the differences between our public and private lives; and the conflict between scientific and religious beliefs. Additionally, several important symbols pop up throughout the novel to highlight these themes, including the scarlet letter, the scaffold, and Pearl. Through the use of these themes and symbols, Hawthorne constructs a world of Puritanical guilt and redemption in the earliest days of America’s history. Shame and Judgment The novel’s most central theme is that of shame and judgment—it is the focal point of the story’s first scene, when Hester Prynne is publicly ridiculed on the scaffold in the town square, and it permeates nearly every part of the book from there on. Prynne is forced to wear the eponymous token over her clothes for the rest of her days in the colony, which is itself a judgment she must endure, as well as an ever-present symbol of her shame and lowly position in the community. As such, wherever she goes she is quickly identified as the person who committed adultery, an act for which the townspeople pass judgment on her, causing her, in turn, to feel some degree of shame. This comes to a head when the townspeople try to take Pearl away from Prynne, an act that mostly stems from their misguided assumptions and views of the mother and daughter. Over time, both the town’s estimation of  Prynne and her own feelings of guilt begin to dissipate, but for many years these feelings are quite strong for each party and serve as a central, motivating force within the story. Public vs. Private The flip side of this form of judgment and shame is experienced by Dimmesdale who, though he has committed the same crime as Prynne, deals with this fact very differently. Dimmesdale must keep his guilt to himself, a state of affairs that drives him mad and eventually to death. Dimmesdales position provides an interesting insight into the nature of judgement and shame when felt privately, not publicly. For one thing, he receives no negative judgment from the others in the colony, as they don’t even know of his involvement in the affair, so he only continues to receive their adulation. Additionally, he has no outlet for his shame, as he must keep it hidden, so it eats away at him over the course of several years. This is not to say that this is worse than Prynnes fate, but the differing situation creates an alternative result; whereas Prynne eventually works her way back, somewhat, into the town’s good graces, Dimmesdale must hide his own shame and literally cannot live with it, as he reveals it and then promptly dies. Through the different ways in which these two are made to endure judgment as well as feel shame, Hawthorne presents a compelling look into the nature of human guilt, as both a public and private phenomenon. Scientific vs. Religious Beliefs Through the relationship between Dimmesdale and Chillingworth, Hawthorne explores the differences between scientific and religious modes of thought and understanding. Given that this novel is set in a 17th century Puritan colony, the characters are deeply religious, and have little understanding of scientific processes. Most of their understanding of the world, in fact, comes from a place of religious belief. For example, when Dimmesdale—who, admittedly, is a priest—looks to the night sky, he takes what he sees as a sign from God. Dimmesdale filtering his perceptions through the lens of his profession is largely the point, though, as he and Chillingworth are used to represent these opposing views. Chillingworth is a new addition to the town, and, as he is a physician, represents the encroaching of science into the religious New World colonies. Additionally, he is often described as representing darkness or evil, or just the devil outright, indicating that his mode of thought is at odds with the others’ in the community, as well as antithetical to God’s order. Interestingly, the two men get along at first, but ultimately grow apart when Chillingworth begins to probe Dimmesdale’s psychological state, suggesting that science and religion are incompatible in analyzing one’s mental anguish. One area in which they do align, however, is over Prynne, as each man attempts at one point to win her love. In the end, though, she rejects both of them, showing that an independently minded woman has no need for either. Symbols The Scarlet Letter Given the book’s title, this object is unsurprisingly a very important symbol throughout the story. Even before the main narrative begins, the reader catches a glimpse of the letter, as the anonymous narrator of â€Å"The Custom House† describes it briefly in the book’s opening section. From there, it appears pretty much right away, and comes to be the story’s most prominent symbol. Interestingly, though the letter represents Prynne’s guilt to the other characters in the book, it has a somewhat different meaning to the reader. It symbolizes not just Prynne’s actions, which, of course, it does symbolize, but it also embodies the town’s viewing of her actions as wrong, and as a punishment forced upon her by her community. As such, it says more about the wearer’s environment, than it does about the wearer herself. It shows that this group is willing to make a very public example of people whom it believes to have transgressed. Notably also, Dimmesdale burns a symbol of some sort—which some claim is an â€Å"A†Ã¢â‚¬â€onto his chest as a sort of atonement for his role in the affair. This highlights the public vs. private theme in the novel, as the two bear the burden of guilt very differently. The Scaffold The scaffold, which appears in the first scene, serves to divide the story into beginning, middle, and end. It first appears in the opening scene, when Prynne is forced to stand on it for several hours and endure harassment from the community. In this moment, it symbolizes a very public form of punishment, and, as this is the beginning of the book, establishes that tone going forward. Later, the scaffold shows up again when Dimmesdale goes out walking one night and ends up there, whereupon he runs into Prynne and Pearl. This is a moment of reflection for Dimmesdale, as he ruminates on his misdeeds, changing the book’s focus from public to private shame. The scaffold’s final appearance comes in the book’s climactic scene, when Dimmesdale reveals his role in the affair, and then promptly dies in Prynne’s arms atop the apparatus. At this moment, Prynne literally embraces Dimmesdale, and the town collectively embraces the two of them, acknowledging the minister’s confession, and forgiving them both of their crimes. The scaffold, therefore, comes to represent atonement and acceptance, completing its journey, much like the characters themselves, from punishment through reflection, and, ultimately, to forgiveness. Pearl Though Pearl is very much a distinct character in her own right, she also acts symbolically as the living embodiment of her parents’ infidelity. As a result, whenever Prynne looks at her, she must confront what she has done, almost more so even than when she looks at the scarlet letter. Importantly, though, she represents not just her parents’ infidelity, but also her mother’s independence. This is epitomized by some of the townspeople trying to take Pearl away from Prynne, which forces the mother to argue before the governor for the right to keep her child. Essentially, she must fight to prove the validity of her desires and affections in the face of this highly rigid and patriarchal society. Pearl, therefore, represents the sinfulness and the gracefulness balanced in tandem inside of her mother—that is, she is wild but still worth loving nonetheless.

Analysis of the Declaration of Independence Essay

Analysis of The Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson was made in order to give the colonists a way to break free from the shackles of King George. This document has affected the building blocks of the United States and is one of the most important documents in U.S. history. The Declaration of Independance was the foundation of what this country was based on. However, what Jefferson and the other signers might not have expected is the strech, the firm words, would have across the world. The document made such an impression because it was a new and differnet way of dealing with political issues, and they werent asking for anyones permission. It was the first document unlike anything in American†¦show more content†¦This portion of the Declaration as well notes the effort that had been made to easily reconsicle differences since many Americans still felt an attachment to England being the place they origonated from. England ignored the colonies due to the feeling of betrayal, a nd left them to fend for themselves. This neglect was fuel added to the fire. In the conclusion of the Declaration the representives and the people of the colonies of the United States of America had noticed the current arangements that needed to be changed in the government system and intended to take affirmative action immediately. The end of the document discloses these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown. The outcome to the Declaration also includes the support they have for this document, that they vow to protect it and pledge their lives and honor. The Declaration of Independence is one of the most significant documents in the history of the United States. It has completely and forever changed the structure and foundation of our country. The Declaration gave purpose to the Revolutionary war. It was a justified reason to revolt against a government that no longer assured us our rights. It shows that they didnt go to war withoutShow MoreRelatedRhetorical Analysis Of The Declaration Of Independence.1343 Words   |  6 PagesRhetorical Analysis of the Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence is arguably the most important historical work of the pre-modern era. Because of this document, America was recognized for its brash, albeit just demands for independence from Britain. Aside from the obvious historical significance and precedence of the document, its composition was constructed in such a way that conveyed the determination of a new nation to be one in its own. Historical context and rhetoricalRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence Rhetorical Analysis1639 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"The Declaration of Independence† Rhetorical Analysis Essay Composed by Thomas Jefferson and the representatives in the general congress on the historic date of July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was an expeditious response to the many acts legalized by the British Parliament prohibiting the colonists’ freedom, and a dismissal of a partition to the King by the First Continental Congress. Not only did it oppose British acts of tyranny, but it was also an incentive for many other universalRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of The Declaration Of Independence1678 Words   |  7 PagesState the purpose, the audience, the tone, and the speaker of the declaration The purpose is to outline the wrongs the King of Britain and Britain have committed against the colonists, and why this has caused them to want to separate from Britain. The article is written directly for King George III, but it was also for the country of Britain and the thirteen colonies to read, as well as the world to see the separation of the colonies from Britain. The tone is clear and rational, yet it is evidentRead More Argument Analysis - Declaration of Independence Essay778 Words   |  4 PagesArgument Analysis - Declaration of Independence In May of 1776 a resolution was passed at the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg that asked the thirteen American colonies to declare the United Colonies free and independent from the British crown. At the second continental congress the resolution passed and on June 11, 1776 a five-man committee led by Thomas Jefferson was established to write the Declaration of Independence. On July 4, 1776 the members of the second continental congressRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence Rhetorical Analysis830 Words   |  4 Pagesdrafting The Declaration of Independence. Jeffersons belief in the aspects of natural law played a huge influence on the reasoning behind The Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independences Preamble is a significant appeal to logos on the grounds of egalitarianism and natural law. His many appeals to logic set the basis for why he believes the thirteen colonies need to secede from Great Britain. Appeals to Pathos: Thomas Jefferson and the drafters of The Declaration of Independence madeRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence Rhetorical Analysis800 Words   |  4 Pages the father of our Declaration of Independence, had the same mentality as him in seeking for freedom. Jefferson decided to write this document as a way of declaring the independence of the United States from Britain. In the document, he states all the harm that Britain has done to the colonists: socially, mentally, and economically. Jefferson just like the colonist wanted peace in their lives, and freedom from the tyranny of King George III. In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson usesRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Declaration Of Independence960 Words   |  4 PagesThe Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Second Continental Congress at Independence Hall in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The document announced that the colonies regarded themselves as thirteen newly independent sovereign states no longer under British rule. T he writers of the Declaration expressed ideals stating that men are created equal and that all men have basic human rights given to them by God. The purpose of a government, according to the Founding Fathers, was to protect the basicRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence Rhetorical Analysis804 Words   |  4 Pages In the second paragraph of The Declaration of Independence is one of historys most regularly quoted passages. â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.† (Jefferson) The Declaration motivated the colonist to seek independence from from the King of Great Britain. Even though the Declaration was trying to point out a positive outcomeRead MoreRhetorical Analysis of the Declaration of Independence Essays1206 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Quang Thai Professor Allison English 101 2 September 2014 Rhetorical Analysis In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson, one of the founding fathers of the United States, explains to his readers why the colonies chose to abolish Great Britain’s government. His goal is to inform the readers that the government has certain responsibilities to the governed and that the British failed to adhere to its responsibilities to its colonists. His second goal is to justify their actions by explainingRead MoreThomas Jefferson Declaration Of Independence Analysis2088 Words   |  9 Pages(A critic and political analysis of Thomas Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence) Jefferson loved books and more especially classical ones† (Beran). Journalist and lawyer, Michael Beran, makes a clear reference to Thomas Jefferson, and his love of books. Books are what educated Jefferson and pushed him to become the great educated man the world knows today. Jefferson was born April 13th, 1743, during a time when to be educated, ment a person could comprehend the great classical books of human

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods Free Essays

Discuss the main differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to data collection and analysis in management research. Your answer should make reference to the philosophical assumptions which underpin these methodological approaches. Introduction Whenever a decision is made to undertake a piece of research a method for conducting the study is required. We will write a custom essay sample on Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods or any similar topic only for you Order Now In scientific research the techniques typically used for data collection and analysis are those which allow the evaluation of data to test a predetermined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). An example of this is a laboratory-based experiment where the researcher can be in full control of all the variables involved and can therefore be sure that any change in the phenomena under investigation is a direct result of an identified and controlled stimulus. In marketing research however, which is usually reliant on some aspect of human influence, it has been proposed that such a uniform, rigid approach is not appropriate: â€Å"There is never a single, perfect research design that is the best for all marketing research projects, or even a specific type of marketing research task. (Malhotra and Birks, 2000: p. 70) The aim of this assignment is to critically evaluate the quantitative and qualitative approaches to research, specifically focusing on the marketing perspective. To do this, consideration is firstly given to the basic differences between the qualitative and quantitative approaches, considering the seemingly opposing theoretical paradigms from which they have origina ted. Subsequently the development of the marketing discipline is examined with a specific focus on how and why different research methods have been employed in the field. Attention is Page 1 of 1 iven to the need for marketing to address both the issue of verifying existing hypotheses, and the requirement to develop new theory. As there appears to be no ideal research method for use in marketing it would seem that what is important is being critically aware of the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches available. Finally, therefore, the notion of pluralism, or methodological triangulation, is explored as such an approach is often used to exploit the strengths and minimise weaknesses in research design through the combination of two or more research methods, often from opposing theoretical paradigms. Basic differences between quantitative and qualitative research Qualitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection, analysis and interpretation of data that cannot be meaningfully quantified, that is, summarised in the form of numbers. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Whereas quantitative research can be defined as: â€Å"†¦the collection of data that involves larger, more representative respondent samples and the numerical calculation of results. † (Parasuraman et al, 2004: p. 195) Historically it has been considered that science based disciplines such as mathematics and physics are especially suited to quantitative research methods. Such methods are considered to be objective and lead to numerical, absolute outcomes, which can be verified through repetition and further testing (Zikmund, 2000); in other words the knowledge is external to the knower (Milliken, 2001), and therefore is available be found by whoever conducts the necessary research (Cunningham, 1999). This view of natural science can be considered to fit within the positivist paradigm, where a paradigm can be thought of as theoretical framework for looking at a situation and a basis upon which phenomena can be analysed and interpreted Page 2 of 2 (Gill and Johnson, 2002). Kuhn (1970) supports the need for paradigms on the basis that they bind disciplines together, and without them there would be no valid position from which to undertake research. Deshpande (1983) suggests that the acceptance of a particular theoretical aradigm is typically followed by a choice of a specific set of research methods that appear to fit within it. This is perhaps exemplified by the significant use of laboratory experiments in pure scientific disciplines. Within the social sciences however there has been a long-standing debate surrounding which philosophical standpoint, or paradigm, it is appropriate for research methods to be derived from (Milliken, 2001). Cohen et al (2000) consider there to be two m ajor, apparently contradictory, views relating to how research should be conducted within social science. The first aligns social science with natural science and therefore implies that research in the field should be directed towards the search for universal laws which regulate individual social behaviour. The second focuses on the human element of social science research, with recognition of the notion that people are not inanimate objects and therefore cannot be treated as such. Aligning social science with natural science arguably implies that data collection and analysis is best performed from a positivist standpoint. As research methods favoured by positivists tend towards those reliant on quantification (Gill and Johnson, 2002), it would follow that in management research the focus should be on quantitative research methods. Research conducted from the positivist viewpoint is usually considered to be reductionist in nature, and is often termed hypothetico-deductive, as it aims to derive a result in relation to a predefined hypothesis (Zikmund, 2000). Conversely, an approach to research which embraces human individuality and places emphasis on how people perceive and give meaning to their own Page 3 of 3 socially created world, can be considered constructivist (Hunt, 1994), and phenomenological (Gill and Johnson, 2002). The focus from this standpoint is therefore on understanding, interpreting and building theory rather than objectively testing, deducing and verifying an existing hypothesis. Such an approach can be considered inductive in nature and therefore favours the adoption of qualitative research methods. ollows: â€Å"†¦the most telling and fundamental distinction between the paradigms is on the dimension of verification versus discovery†¦quantitative methods have been developed most directly for the task of verifying or confirming theories and†¦qualitative methods were purposely developed for the task of discovering or generating theories. † (Reichardt and Cook, 1979: cited in Deshpande, 1983: p. 105 ) This can be explained further as At the extreme of the inductive spectrum lies the concept of grounded theory developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967). Here the researcher builds theory based entirely on the data obtained in a particular study without the influence of predetermined knowledge or preconceived hypotheses. Taking deduction to the extreme hypotheses can only ever be tested, raising the question of how it is possible to obtain a hypothesis in the first place. This presents a number of dilemmas with regard to research in the field of management, including whether it is more appropriate to test existing hypotheses or to develop new theory. The theory-testing versus theory-generation debate is particularly significant in the field of marketing as, due to the relative youth of the discipline, marketers are faced with the challenge of both obtaining and maintaining respect and credibility for the work that has been done so far (Bartels, 1983); and continuing to generate theory needed to develop a coherent, holistic body of knowledge which will clear up marketing’s existing â€Å"theory mess† (Gummesson, 2002: p. 349). Page 4 of 4 Development of research in the field of marketing The discipline of marketing, which came about as a departure from economics not long after 1900, originally had no identity of its own. There was no predetermined framework for its development, nor any real expectation of what it should, or could, become (Bartels, 1983). The way the discipline started to develop however led to a belief that it had â€Å"†¦meritorious scientific character† (Bartels, 1983: p. 34), which subsequently influenced ideas about the way in which credible research in the field should be conducted. Consequently approaches to research in marketing have historically been dominated by deductive processes (Hyde, 2000). Milliken (2001) supports this with the observation that within the marketing literature there has been little attention paid to qualitative research. If marketing was universally accepted to be akin to a pure science then this may be an acceptable situation. It has been suggested however that, rather than being a science, marketing is actually an art which belongs both to the world of business and the school of humanities (Halliday, 1999). It was noted by Deshpande (1983) that in the early 1980s there were only four major textbooks dealing with the metatheoretical issues in marketing, and it can therefore be understood that â€Å"†¦self conscious reflection on theory construction in marketing is of fairly recent origin. † (p. 104). Peter (1982), supported by Deshpande (1983), argues that the dominant philosophical approach applied in marketing is that of logical empiricism. Such a positivist approach forces a â€Å"†¦search for causality and the assumption of determinism† (Hunt, 1994: p. 7), which directs those conducting marketing research towards hypotheticodeductive methods for the verification of existing theories rather than development of new ones. Page 5 of 5 Goulding (1999) suggests that the popularity of the positivist paradigm may be down to the more transparent rules which it projects with regard to the basis of hypotheses and their testing, resulting in a clearer picture of what is a ccepted to be known and what remains unknown or untested. As marketing is a relatively young discipline, quantitative methods have therefore been regularly favoured over qualitative methods in an attempt to establish credibility and respectability (Bartels, 1983). Bass (1993) unreservedly supports quantitative research and the scientific view of marketing, on the basis of the need to make general laws and principles which can be widely applied. To emphasise his position further Bass (1993) repeatedly refers to the discipline as not as â€Å"marketing† but as â€Å"marketing science†. Despite this apparent favouritism of qualitative research, for establishing integrity and credence, it has been suggested that marketing as a discipline has failed to develop a coherent theoretical foundation due to the inappropriate selection and use of methods within the framework of logical empiricism (Leone and Schultz, 1980). criticises how qualitative research is implemented. Gummesson (2001) also He questions whether or not it is ppropriate to make a jump from a subjective answer given by a person, perhaps in the form of a questionnaire response, to hard facts about the population being studied, and furthermore if a model being selected for use in marketing research can be an appropriate proxy for the particular situation being studied. Gummesson (2001) instead advocates an interactive approach to research in marketing based on â€Å"†¦a humanistic, hermeneutic and phenomenological paradigm. (p. 40). Deshpande (1983) is in agreement with this and proposes that, rather th at the incorrectly using quantitative research methods, the shortfall in theory development in the field may lie in the inappropriate adoption of a quantitative paradigm where a qualitative one would be more appropriate: â€Å"If we ignore the qualitative paradigm, we also by definition exclude the principal systematic means of theory generation. † (Deshpande, 1983: p. 106) Page 6 of 6 The dominance of logical empiricism in marketing has therefore been seen as potentially detrimental to the discipline, because the successful development of an appropriate holistic and sound body of theory is necessary for the credibility of the field in both management and academe (Bartels, 1983). Hunt (1994) however observes that scholars in the field of marketing, particularly those reviewing papers for publication in academic journals, may themselves be responsible for the lack of theory generation by being over critical when reviewing the work of those who attempt to make an original contribution. According to Gummesson (2001) this behaviour reinforces the belief that to build a publications record, and a respectable reputation, marketers are being encouraged to test existing theory using quantitative methods rather than generate theory through qualitative investigation. This, it has been suggested, has resulted in there being no development in general management marketing theory over recent decades, leaving marketing as an array of disjointed theories and ideas founded on arguably obsolete principles Gummesson (2001). The lack of credibility given to qualitative research techniques in marketing from the academic perspective does however appear somewhat ironic given that such methods are widely adopted in marketing research in industry (Deshpande, 1983). Although it may appear that qualitative marketing research is a relatively recent revelation, Deshpande (1983) argues that this is not the case. He observes that there was significant interest in the topic in the 1950s and 1960s. In the early 1980s, Fern (1982) suggested that the reason one specific qualitative technique, focus groups, had failed to gain prominence was a lack of empirical testing, which would allow the theory development necessary to acquire credibility. In other words a qualitative technique struggled to generate recognition because it could not satisfy the positivistic evaluation criteria needed to do so. This is perhaps indicative of the historical power of positivism in marketing academia in determining what can be accepted as credible Page 7 of 7 nd what cannot, regardless of whether or not techniques are accepted in the commercial environment. Malhotra and Peterson (2001) suggest that for marketing to move forward in the twenty-first century it is necessary to bridge the gap between the academic and commercial positions. There is evidence of increasing acceptance of qualitative methods in marketing research, especially in managing research as the marketplace evolves. For example Kozinet z (2002) developed â€Å"netnography† as a technique for gaining insight into online communities based on a combination of the principles of ethnography and focus groups. Quantitative techniques it would appear still have their place in marketing research too, despite the criticisms levelled at them. The SERVQUAL questionnaire for example, originally developed by Parasuraman et al (1988), relies on the collection of data which can be statistically manipulated to determine levels of service quality. Notwithstanding the substantial criticism it has received (see Buttle, 1996), it is still being used in marketing research today (see e. g. DeMoranville and Bienstock, 2003). What it would consequently appear important to recognise is that both quantitative and qualitative methods have their place in marketing research; neither is sufficient on its own, and there is potentially for significant advances to be made if marketing researchers acknowledge this (Deshpande, 1983). Triangulation and methodological pluralism There is a place in marketing research for both qualitative and quantitative research. There is also a significant risk that overly staunch advocates of a single paradigm will forego the quality of their research by valuing the methodological choice above the aim of the particular Page 8 of 8 study (Bartels, 1983). From a marketing research perspective the importance therefore lies in recognition of the relative advantages and disadvantages of both the qualitative and quantitative research and the understanding of the strengths and weakness of particular methods. Cahill (1996) supports this with the recognition that qualitative and quantitative techniques can be complementary, and Milliken (2001) suggests that the reality of a real research situation demands compromise between the seemingly opposed philosophical standpoints on which the methods are based. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods presents the researcher with an opportunity to compensate for the weakness in each approach. (Deshpande, 1983), and within the field of marketing there appears to be a significant move towards combining qualitative and quantitative research methods (Milliken, 2001). Perry (1998) emphasises the benefit of case study methodology in marketing and suggests that there is no need to consider induction and deduction to be mutually exclusive when selecting a research method. He emphasises that realism is the most appropriate paradigm from which to undertake marketing research as it allows the building of new theory whilst incorporating existing knowledge. Strength in method combination does not necessarily have to include qualitative and quantitative approaches. Hall and Rist (1999) present a marketing study based on the triangulation of purely qualitative research methods including focus groups, observation and document examination. They argue that doing this eliminates the risks of relying on a single method and therefore enhances research quality and strengthens the credibility of qualitative techniques. Page 9 of 9 Methodological pluralism, whilst appearing to offer reconciliation between opposing theoretical paradigms in relation to research method choice, does itself introduce debate and criticism. Gill and Johnson (2002) for example note that embracing realism can be seen as accepting positivism at the cost of phenomenology as it may involve the †¦operationalization and measurement of social reality (stimuli) and action (response)†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (p. 170). Consequently, combining research methods can itself become part of the argument rather than a solution. Conclusion The decision of whether to adopt qualitative or quantitative methods in management research historically appears to be based on the philosophical assumptions upheld by the individual researcher or the discipline in which he or she is work ing. A paradigmatic dichotomy between positivism and phenomenology (or constructivism) would seem to have resulted in a situation where, in some instances, the research methodology choice is deemed more significant than the subject of the particular study. Marketing is a relatively young discipline within the field of management and, as such, is faced with the challenge of obtaining and maintaining credibility. To do this it has been proposed that it needs to both test existing theory and generate new theory, however the processes required to achieve these two goals can be seem to stem from diametrically opposed paradigms: theory-testing being achievable through deductive methods; and theory generation relying on an inductive approach. This incommensurability has however been challenged with the assertion that what is important is selecting an appropriate methodology for a particular study, rather than fitting a Page 10 of 10 study to a method. Methodological triangulation has been suggested as a means of achieving this, with a move towards a paradigm of realism where the relative advantages and disadvantages of a number of research methods can be embraced. Whilst at face value this approach may appear to offer a compromise offering the best practical solution to the methodological choice dispute, it also introduces criticism of its own which, in turn fuels the debate further. The general aim of this discussion, to consider the differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods, has itself been conducted from an ostensibly positivistic standpoint. In fact any discussion, comparison or assessment of research methods is arguably starting from a predetermined premise that an objective evaluation is being undertaken (Gill and Johnson, 2002), and can therefore be seen to be embracing positivist ideals. Taking into account the amount of attention that has been paid to philosophical approaches to management research; the ambiguities that are apparent; the ongoing search for the most suitable and appropriate means for conducting studies; and the motivation to establish and maintain credibility, it would seem unlikely that end to the debate regarding research methods in management is in sight: â€Å"Like the earth being round, thus lacking a natural end, the journey in Methodologyland has no end. You search again and again and again, just as the term says: re-search, re-search, re-search. (Gummesson, 2001: p. 29) Page 11 of 11 References Bartels, R. (1983), â€Å"Is marketing defaulting its responsibilities? †, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 32-35 Bass, F. M. (1993), â€Å"The future of research in marketing: Marketing Science†, Journal of Marketing Research, 30(1), pp. 1-6 Buttle, F. (1996), â€Å"SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda†, European Journal o f Marketing, 30(1), pp. 8-32 Cahill, D. J. (1996), â€Å"When to use qualitative methods: a new approach†, Marketing Intelligence Planning, 14(6), pp. 16-20 Cohen, L. , Manion, L. and Morr, K. 2000), Research Methods in Education, 5th Edition, Routledge: London Cunningham, A. C. (1999), â€Å"Commentary confessions of a reflective practitioner: meeting the challenges of marketing’s destruction†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(7/8), pp. 685-697 DeMoranville, C. W. and Bienstock, C. C. (2003), â€Å"Question order effects in measuring service quality†, International Journal of research in Marketing, 20(3), pp. 217-231 Deshpande, R. (1983), â€Å"Paradigms Lost: On theory and method in research in marketing†, Journal of Marketing, 47(4), pp. 101-110 Fern, E. F. 1982), â€Å"The use of focus groups for idea generation: the effects of group size, acquaintanceship, and moderator on response quantity and quality†, Journal of Marketing Research, 19(1), pp. 1-13 Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2002), Research Methods For Mangers, 3rd Edition, London: SAGE Publications Ltd Glaser, B. G. and Strauss, A. L. (1967), The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research, Aldine Publishing Company: Chicago Goulding, C. (1999), â€Å"Consumer research, interpretive paradigms and methodological ambiguities†, European Journal of Marketing, 33(9/10), pp. 59-873 Gummesson, E. (2001), â€Å"Are current research approaches in marketing leading us astray? †, Marketing Theory, 1(1), pp. 27-48 Gummesson, E. (2002), â€Å"Practical value of adequate marketing management theory†, European Journal of Marketing, 36(3), pp. 325-349 Hall, A. L. and Rist, R. C. (1999), â€Å"Integrating multiple qualitative research methods (or avoiding the precariousness of a one-legged stool)†, Psychology Marketing, 16(4), pp. 291304 Page 12 of 12 Halliday, S. 1999), â€Å"I don’t know much about art, but I know wh at I like: resonance, relevance and illumination as assessment criteria for marketing research and scholarship†, Marketing Intelligence Planning, 17(7), pp. 345-362 Hunt, S. D. (1994), â€Å"On rethinking marketing: Our discipline, our practice, our methods†, European Journal of Marketing, 28(3), pp. 13-25 Hyde, K. F. (2000), â€Å"Recognising deductive processes in qualitative research†, Qualitative Market Research, 3(2), pp. 82-90 Kozinets, R. V. (2002), â€Å"The field behind the screen: Using Netnography for marketing research in online communities†, Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), pp. 1-72 Kuhn, T. S. (1970), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd Edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Leone, R. P. and Schultz, R. L. (1980), â€Å"A study of marketing generalizations†, Journal of Marketing, 44(1), pp. 10-18 Malhotra, N. K. and Birks, D. F. (2000), Marketing Research: An Applied Approach, 3rd European Edition, Harlow, England : Financial Times Prentice Hall Malhotra, N. K. and Peterson, M. (2001), â€Å"Marketing research in the new millennium: emerging issues and trends†, Marketing Intelligence Planning, 19(4), pp. 16-235 Milliken, J. (2001), â€Å"Qualitative research and marketing management†, Management Decision, 39(1), pp. 71-77 Parasuraman, A. , Grewal, D. and Krishnan, R. (2004), Maketing Research, Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company Parasuraman, A. , Zeithaml, V. A. and Berry, L. L. (1988), â€Å"SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumers perceptions of service quality†, Journal of Retailing, 64(1), pp. 12-40 Perry, C. (1998), â€Å"Process of a case study methodology for postgraduate research in marketing†, 32(9/10), pp. 785-802 Peter, J. P. 1982), â€Å"Current issues in the philosophy of science: Implications for marketing theory – a panel discussion†, in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, Bush, R. F. and Hunt, S. D. (eds. ), Chicago, American Marketing, pp. 11-16 Reichardt, C. S. and Cook, T. D. (1979), â€Å"Beyond qualitative versus quantitative methods†, in Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research, Cook, T. D and Reichardt, (eds. ) Beverley Hills, CA: Sage Zikmund, W. G. (2000), Business Research Methods, 6th Edition, Orlando, USA: The Dryden Press, Harcourt College Publishers Page 13 of 13 How to cite Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods, Papers

Teamwork and Its Issues Related to Society- myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Write about theTeamwork and Its Issues Related to Society. Answer: Introduction In accordance to many scholars, the definition of the teamwork can be many and different, but as per my understanding the term teamwork signifies the meaning of working together for the achievement of one goal. As the term indicates teamwork is working within a team. As I have worked various organizations I have experienced teamwork and I personally feel there are some basic as well as underlying rules of working within a team which makes the effective result of the same. At the same time, I personally feel that every person in the team must understand and follow these rules for a smoother outcome of the activity. However, in the following section of the essay I will be discussing my experience in teamwork from various organizations I have worked for. Along with this, I will present the basic norms of the team working for any purpose. Being a student of the university, I have worked for many organizations for earning my pocket money and while working with various people I have learned and experienced the meaning of team work. Not only all the time I have gained a smoother working experience, but also I have encountered several issues within the same context. From my experience, I feel that all the issues have some connection to the society and well as to the personal life of the people. Besides, I strongly feel that the team working refers to ones realization of the responsibility imposed upon him. However, I realized that working within a team helps one enhancing his abilities, sense of responsibilities, performance, trust and most importantly makes one a positive and better person. For example, while working in various organizations I have gradually developed my interpersonal skills and communication is the finest example of it. Apart from that, I have not only developed my communicative and other personal skill s, but have become more responsible and sensible person which is important for living in a society. I have realized that there will definitely arise some issues within the team while working together and to certain extent the issues create impact on the team members as well as on the societies. On the other hand, the issues are responsible for creating conflicts among the group members and hazards in the intended activities. Therefore, I feel that one must ensure the proper understating and realization of the rules and ethics of working in a team in order to avoid the any conflicts and hazards. Some of the issues that I have encountered both in my part and in the part of my co workers are in the contexts of communication, leadership, accountability and responsibility, creativity, participation, decision making and many others. However, I will be highlighting there mentioned issues in this essays and the connection of the same to the society. The first issue that I want to mention is about communication. I strongly feel that the communication is the most important aspect of the teamwork. Without effective communication among the group members as well as with the leaders the intended objectives cannot be met. The purpose of the effective communication is to have a proper understanding among the members of the team which helps the team to achieve the goal set for them. Poor communication in a team refers to the talking of one member over another or interrupting the conversations of others. Apart from that the poor communication also indicates the absence of one member of the team from communication with others. All these examples of poor communication are capable of arising argumentative situations within the team which can hamper the activities. For example, while working in a restaurant as a delivery boy, I had to maintain proper communication both with my co workers as well as with the customers. Effective communication was the basis of my job. If I failed in communicating with the people I was working with, the purpose of my job would not be fulfilled. On the other hand, the failing to establish proper communication once created severe conflicts with the customers of the restaurant. For example, once I took an order from the customers and asked to prepare the same to my co workers. Unfortunately, he somehow misunderstood my saying and delivered the wrong order to the customer. Naturally, there arose conflicts between the customer and the delivery boy. This was one of my initial experiences that I have gained while working within a team. These kinds of situations has arisen many times after that I from all the situations I have learned and realized that communication issues are general in teamwork. I have come to realize that the communication issues have both direct and indirect connection to the society. The social value of the people is to certain extent determined by the communication. As per my understanding of the issues deriving from the communication, the communication of the people determines the social standards of them. Improper communication between two people is capable of the disrupting the social standards and values of both. Apart from this, there is positive aspect of the communicative issues that I have realized had helped me developing my communicative skills. Through the various jobs and number of different issues deriving from communication, I have helped to gradually enhance my communicative skills in terms of the effective social communication. Leadership is another major issue that frequently occurs in the teamwork. Any team needs a leader who guides and motivates the team to meet the target. Leaders of the team defines the activities and tasks to the team members for certain purpose. Therefore, I believe that the leaders of the team are strengths and base of the same. As I have worked with various organizations with various teams, I have seen many issues deriving from the leadership. I believe that, the basic style of leadership must portray the positive and inspiring aspect of the leader so the team members are motivated to work for the targeted goals. However, there are various styles of the leadership as stated by various scholars. According to my experience, there can arise many issues within a team related to leadership. Ineffective leadership, de-motivating or dominating leaders, poor decision making are some of the issues that can be highlighted in leadership activities in teamwork. I strongly believe that the leaders of the team are responsible for providing the team members with inclusive vision and purpose for working. Failing to do the same can be mentioned as the ineffectiveness of the leadership. Besides, the leaders of the organizations are also responsible for managing any kind of change within the organization for making the team members understanding the necessity of the change. Therefore, as the scholars stats and according to my experience in professional context, the leadership issues are one of the major in the teamwork and are capable of hampering the usual workflow within the same. Among the various organizations I have worked in supermarket as sales executives, which I believe is one of the challenging jobs. We were a team of fifteen people under one sales manager. We were responsible for selling the goods to the customers. The responsibilities of our sales manager were to guide us in our job and motivate us for the same as this job at times felt boring and frustrating. Being the sales manager, he was the leader of the sales group and was responsible for managing his team. However, I found out that he failed to do his job which made some of the team members to leave the job. The leadership of the manager was ineffective in terms of communication, guidance and motivation. He failed to make us understand our job responsibilities and guide us for the same. On a different note, this needs to be mentioned that both the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of the leadership can be seen in the political leadership. If the people of the nation are considered as the team then the political leader can be considered as the team leader. I believe that the leadership of a broader perspective can be developed from the smaller context. Therefore, I feel that the leadership has the direct connection to society in terms of its effectiveness and responsibilities. The next issue that I want to highlight in regard to the teamwork is the responsibility and accountability of each person working within a team. Being responsible for the given job and accountable for own deeds is one of the major aspects of the teamwork. Since, I have gained wide experience from various professions; I have encountered many issues within the team regarding responsibilities and accountability of the team members. I personally opine that these two qualities of a person reflect his personality. At the same time, I understood that these qualities are at the same time necessary and important for working in team in order to maintain a proper coordination and understanding among the team members as well as about the intended activities. I would like to provide an example of the issue regarding the responsibility and accountability in teamwork. While working in a restaurant we had team of twelve people and each of us was given different responsibilities to work for. I found out that some of the team members are not serious about their responsibilities and often commit mistakes in their job. When asked about the same they refuse to admit about their mistakes and usually blame another person responsible for their deeds. This kind of situations often created conflicts within the team. Therefore, I feel that sense of responsibilities and accountability is another major aspect of the teamwork. The accountability refers to the responsibility for own deeds and it is important for maintaining appropriate culture within the team as well as in the workplace. I believe that each person of the team must be accountable for their own activities which I feel will make the achievement of the targeted goal easier for the team. As per my personal opinion, I also feel that accountability also denotes the understanding of own responsibilities that have been provided to me. Therefore, I understood and feel that the sense of responsibilities and accountability is important in teamwork for serving the purpose which the team has been provided with. The responsibilities and accountability is directly connected to the society and I feel the same is developed from a smaller context. I believe that every one of us has certain responsibilities towards the society and each must perform the same for the sake of the society. Besides, everyone must be accountable for their own activities that makes harm to the society. Hence, I affirm that the issues regarding the same has the direct and major connection to the society for which everyone of the team must ensure the importance of the sense of responsibilities accountability. Apart from these major issues there are some issues that can be identified as other influencing issues of teamwork. Creativity is one of the minor issues that are capable of influencing the usual workflow of the teamwork. Creativity is important within the team in order to modifying the workflow. Any issues within the team regarding the creativity such as lack of creativity; ineffectiveness of creativity can disrupt the usual workflow of the team. On the other hand, the participation of all the member in the team in important for attaining the required and intended goals. The lack of full participation of each member of the team in the team activities ensures the effective and successful teamwork. Another important issue is the decision making which is crucial in decision making. Each of the team members is responsible for decision making of the team as the whole towards the certain goal. Any issues within the team regarding the decision making for certain purpose hampers activities of the team. In accordance to my understanding and opinion of all these minor issues, these issues to certain extent can be linked with the social context. As I have stated, creativity is important in a team in order to generate new and fresh ideas for serving the provided purpose. To certain extent, creative and innovative ideas of team members and the leaders determines the success of the team. The lack of creativity is considered to be one of the minor but important issues within a team that is capable of disrupting team work. On the other note, the creativity of the team is related to the society in terms of development. The society is constantly and consistently striving for development and reaching this aim the society needs new and creative ideas which cannot be grown by an individual. Therefore, the teamwork is important in terms of creativity for the development of the society. I consider the participation of each people in the team necessary since I feel that without the proper and full participation of all people in the group, the achievement of the target is not possible. The complete participation of the people I believe, ensure the performance of the team towards the certain goal. Considering this fact, any issue regarding the participation such as lack of participation, unwilling participation is indirectly linked with the society. For example, while working as the waiter in Starbucks one of my colleagues was reluctant to join our team. Later I found out that that particular person was also reluctant to participate in any social activities. Therefore, I realized that any issues regarding the participation of the people in the group has a broader impact in terms of social perspective. The last but not the least issue is regarding the decision making. I personally feel that decision making is one of the important aspects of the teamwork as the decision making impacts of the activities and performance of the team for a certain purpose. The lack of ability to make decisions or ineffective or poor decision making can affect the performance of the team (Levi, 2015). Again, if the fact is considered on a broader perspective like society, the lack of efficiency in decision making impacts on the social life of the people. Therefore, I would like to conclude that all the above mentioned issues are primarily thee different aspects of teamwork.I realize that if all these aspects are not maintained properlythese emerge as the issues and these issues are capable of disrupting and affecting the natural workflow of team. Along with this, the issues influence the performance of team as the whole. Apart from this, the issues are directly or indirectly connected to society in terms of maintaining social values and standards for living in the society. From the great amount of experience, I have gained from various professions; I have developed my realization and personal skills through the numerous issues in the teamwork. Reference: Bennett, J., Pitt, M., Price, S. (2012). Understanding the impact of generational issues in the workplace.Facilities,30(7/8), 278-288. Lee, H., Bonk, C. J. (2014). Collaborative Learning in the Workplace: Practical Issues and Concerns.International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning,7(2). Levi, D. (2015).Group dynamics for teams. Sage Publications. Rosenbach, W. E., Taylor, R. L., Youndt, M. A. (2012).Contemporary issues in leadership. Westview Press. Salas, E., Rosen, M. A. (2013). Building high reliability teams: progress and some reflections on teamwork training.BMJ Qual Saf,22(5), 369-373. Tannenbaum, S. I., Mathieu, J. E., Salas, E., Cohen, D. (2012). Teams are changing: Are research and practice evolving fast enough?.Industrial and Organizational Psychology,5(1), 2-24. Thory, K. (2013). A gendered analysis of emotional intelligence in the workplace: Issues and concerns for human resource development.Human Resource Development Review,12(2), 221-244.